The Myth that Imprisonment is the Most Severe Form of Punishment
[Writer Name]
[Institute Name]

The Myth that Imprisonment is the Most Severe Form of Punishment

Introduction
There are numerious consent related to the explanation of the crime. The media advertises crime by what acts are reacted to by the courts & police whereas a lawyer examines crime as acts that have been explaned as crimes by the written lagislation. A myth can be recognized as a story or belief that has been associated with an occurrence, so, crime myths are attitude about crime not affirmed by appropriate study (Boyle, 2005). Therefore, crime facts are what criminal acts are actually occurrence exposed by evidence. Juvenile crime myths are to be used in this study to discuss crime myths and facts in four discussions by focusing particularly on juvenile crime.

Discussion
This study begins by examining the developments and motivations of myths produced by the media and the government and then secondly contrasting this with the developments and motivations of crime facts produced from various measures to show resemblances in accuracy. Next, as a result from the above analysis, it will be argued that majority of juvenile crime is non-violent, dispelling the media created myth that all juvenile crime is violent (Robert and Jeffery, 2006). It is discussed that juvenile crime rates are relatively stable and the best way to get a comprehensive outlook on crime is through statistical research rather than succumbing to the medias ‘representations’ of crime.
Perpetuator Of Crime Myths And Fallacies
The first point of discussion is that the media is a huge perpetuator of crime myths and fallacies creating trend stories because sensationalism sells. The media and other contributing factors such as the government select the crime problems for society and focus people attention on social issues (Boyle, 2005). Newspapers, television, radio and the Internet together misrepresent crime by dramatising particular crime events, rarely based on factual evidence and usually focused on certain groups of people and locations, affecting the selected residents or age groups. This is a generalised perception of crime causing the community to have a similar outlook.
Evidence of these arguments is substantiated after four nights of rioting by youths that occurred in Macquarie Fields of western Sydney, in February. Boyle (2005) states that residents were reportedly “angry with the media because of the spin that is being put on the situation” and that reporters were “denigrating Macquarie Fields” and other Macquarie Fields youths. This affair led to a chain of media stories focusing on youth crime in all states causing social concern and unnecessary fear amongst the public.
While the media is a perpetuator, Kappeler continues to argue that the government also assists in the creation of crime myths to ensure that society maintains its perceptions of criminals and the criminal justice system and secures their interests. While media is the main purpetuator, the government also co-operates to publicise social problems, resulting in the creation of crime myths. Reporting of a crime might be accurate to a point, but it is still developed into a myth because of the lack of supporting evidence supplied with the story.

Developments And Motivations Of Crime Myths
Argued secondly is how the developments and motivations of crime myths contrasts with that of crime facts. Crime facts are produced from statistical research supplied by various resources. Researchers use information supplied to create a broader outlook on specific crimes. Three commonly used measures of crime are surveys of self-reported crime, crime victim surveys and recorded crime (police statistics, court records). Graycar & Grabosky (2002) argue that there is frequent disagreement over police statistics as not all crimes are reported to the police, making the data partially unreliable. Court statistics only show offenders who have been prosecuted, but show a good idea of the characteristics of offenders that may dispel other myths.
Braithwaite (1979) states that the validity of crime victim surveys can also be questioned due to the respondent’s honesty. Braithwaite also argues that even though different methodologies have their weaknesses, using them together can show that “the result is not the reflection of some artificial relationship with the large error variance in each case” (p. 37). This shows that crime facts may not be completely factual but these resources are utilised together to create a more comprehensive outlook on crime.

The Crime and Safety Survey
The media has encouraged the community to perceive juvenile crime as being violent and on the rise. It is evident from such headlines from The Advertiser as, “Youth bring terror to streets” (Youth, 2005), and, “Teenage gangs with weapons to kill” (Williams, 2005), that the media is portraying a trend in juvenile crime and it is creating a feeling of insecurity in the community although no statistical evidence is shown in any of these articles. Research has shown that juveniles commit minimal violent crimes although the media gives the impression that it is otherwise. Mukherjee, Carcach & Higgins (1997, pp.18, 19) reports that of the queensland juvenile offenders between 1991 to 1996 only 9% included violent crimes. Violent crimes were categorised as homicide, serious assault, common assault and robbery.
Furthermore illustrates that offender rates were similar in 1995-1996 and 2002-2003 for the offences of homicide, assault, sexual assault and robbery and are well below property offences. Ilustrates to us that theft is the most likely offence to be committed by juveniles and while some offences are violent, the majority are non-violent which dispels the myth that most juvenile crime is violent. Crime facts are contradicting what the media has advertised as a trend in newspapers and it appears that non-violent crimes are not newsworthy (Robert and Jeffery, 2006).  Had these newspapers not published such headlines, Australians might not think of juvenile crime as being as violent.
There is little cause for concern over violent youth crime even though there has been a great deal of attention from the media. This perception of vicious and aggressive youth crime has been sparked by an increase in media coverage in recent months and various research agencies have released media releases to dispel many juvenile crime myths. The largest decline was between 2000-2001 and 2002-2003 at 20%. In fact the rate has been on a decline since 2003.
Furthermore, after conducting a study on recidivism, Cain (1996) identifies that 70% of juvenile offenders had only one appearance in court while 15% had two, indicating that 85% of juveniles have limited involvement with the criminal justice system. Cain concludes that it is a small proportion of youth offenders who are responsible for a large percentage of crimes. There is no evidence of a trend or ‘crime wave’ in youth crime. Furthermore, according to victimization results, youth crime rates are relatively stable. It is unwarranted to fear youths because of media enforced crime myths. This myth can be dispelled because of the evidence illustrated.

Conclusion
It is concluded that by comparing myth developments as well as myths relating to juvenile crime, it is concluded that crime myths and facts are very diverse because of the way they are developed and perceived by society. From this examination, it is evident that both the media and science have significantly different motivations for the creation of myths and facts. Crime myths create a feeling of vulnerability and insecurity whereas crime facts try to achieve balance and a level of reassurance. From comparing these two media enforced crime myths to their facts, it is recognized that most juvenile offences are not violent in nature and there is no increase in juvenile crime regardless of the medias interpretings, therefore the decline in juvenile crime and violence is visibly not newsworthy material. Media, being the major source of information in society for adults, create a level of insecurity and fear of juveniles that is excessive.

References
ABS (2002) ABS Crime and Justice Data in A Grayscar and P Grabosky (eds) The Cambridge Handbook of Australian Criminology. Melbourne: Cambridge University Press, pp 31-38
Australian crime: Facts and figures 2004. (2004). Australian Institute of Criminology.
Retrieved March 20, 2005 from http://www.aic.gov.au
Boyle, P. (2005, March 16). Media incites more violence. Green Left Weekly
Braithwaite, J. (1979), Australian delinquency: Research and practical considerations’ in Paul R. Wilson (ed), Delinquency in Australia. A Critical Perspective, University of Queensland Press, St Lucia, 15-38.
Bohm M. Robert, Walker T. Jeffery. (2006). Demystifying Crime and Criminal Justice. Published by Roxbury. ISBN    1933220163, 9781933220161. PP. 140- 154
Cain M (1996), Recidivism of Juvenile Offenders in NSW, NSW Department of Juvenile
Justice, Sydney.
Kappeler, V, Blumberg, M and Potter, G (1993), Mythology and Crime and Criminal Justice, Chapter 1, ” The Social Construction of Crime Myths”, Waveland Press.
Mukherjee, S, Carcach, C and Higgins, K (1997), Juveniles as offenders. Research and Public Policy Series, 11 18,19
Williams, Matt. (2005), ‘Teenage gangs with weapons to kill’, The Advertiser, http://www.news.com.au

Running Head: CRIMINAL JUSTICE POLICY

Criminal Justice Policy
[Name of the Writer]
[Name of the Institute]

Criminal Justice Policy
Thesis Statement
The Myth that Imprisonment is the Most Severe Form of Punishment
Introduction
Good and evil are abstractions from which we construct the concept of crime, which often is the deprivation of liberty outcome. Almost everyone assumes that a violation, infraction or offense must necessarily involve a punishment. In most societies, especially in industrialized countries, the punishment comes in the form of imprisonment, prison. What differentiates us about cultures of others, in this sense, the social construction of crime?

Analysis
Although term limits have more crime or less well defined, sometimes temporarily forget this “moral” in the name of the war. Who defines the rules may also decide, and to believe the rest of society, the killings, looting and other niceties that occurred during the war, are justified by the greater good could be achieved if they give rise victory. As they say in these cases, “the end justifies the means.” In experimental psychology punishment defined as: a) presentation, contingent upon a behavior deemed undesirable, an aversive stimulus, b) the removal, contingent on behavior deemed undesirable, an appetitive stimulus. The slap delivered to the child who speaks in class and turn off the TV before which the child enjoyed watching cartoons while they poked in the nose is examples of two types of punishment. In both cases the conduct is deemed undesirable (talking in class and get your finger in the nose) has a lower probability of occurrence in the future, given the consequences it has brought (Cayley, David , 1999).
Unfortunately, the effects of punishment are generally very different from what is popularly supposed; see Skinner (1953) about it. But the prison sentence as a particular form of punishment is even more problematic, given the enormous distance that separates the criminal conduct of the sentence received. Bayes (1977) has addressed the issue in this Yearbook and therefore not going to revisit the issue. We would however point out some points of this complex problem. When a court punish a guy with a prison sentence. What do you expect to get it? If it is consistent with the aforementioned definition of punishment, we must assume that in the future expect to see a decrease, by the convicted, the likelihood of criminal behavior. How then to explain the existence of a life sentence? Clearly, in this case is not getting in the future the subject does not commit new crimes, since, for him, no other future than prison (Furio, Jennifer, 2002).
So, send to jail a person does not respond to what we normally understand as punishment because there is no such a decision expresses the intention to reduce the likelihood of future violation of the law. Judges know very well that there is virtually no relationship between imprisonment and the amendment of a condemned man. Proof of this is that most of the prison population sees recidivists outlined Bayes statistics (1977) about it. What really moves a judge to order a prison sentence is the feeling that the guilty must pay for his crime. The prison is not punishment, in the sense that we defined, since it produces the desired effects, or, in the background, are expected to produce, if not something close to vengeance (Zimring, Franklin E., and Hawkins, Gordon, 1991).

Relativizing good and evil
Not only must define what crime is, but what crimes are more serious and which are lighter, determining how sad it is for each one. The relativity of good and evil throughout all cultures does nothing to prove Manichaeism that emerges from such an interpretation. Normally, each society has a common agreement on these categories (good and bad), and acts accordingly. However, there are always people who do not share that view, for which transgression becomes the norm. There will also be people who, while sharing the collective consensus, decide to prioritize the satisfaction of their needs or personal desires, for breaking the law if this is necessary. To define where it starts good and evil where a small group built an entire legislative body, and the remaining majority accepts it and abides. Laws are not just a social construct, in theory, help to maintain order among people living. In practice, constitute a system of differentiation between people: the adjusted and the maladjusted, good and bad (Morris, Norval, 1974).

Same crime, is it punishment?
Do not forget, “who made the law, made the trap” and even mandatory for all persons who rely on her breast, the fact is that there are countless ways to transgress and escape from it … or fall squarely in the system reserved for those who dare to infringe it. In this sense, the crime is necessary, it serves to justify the judicial system, pointing to scapegoat a few, so that attention is diverted to them, can the “big fish” without observance of offending those who have signed that consensus called justice. And it is not the same one white-collar criminal than a common criminal. The chances that the former has to make their offenses are much broader and so are those that allow bypassing the punitive law. The common criminal if caught while performing their work, inevitably will go to jail (Sasha Abramsky, 2002).

Criminal Conduct
The context and the way we’ve socialized are key factors, but so is the differential access to goods. The crime is a consequence of social inequalities, it acts balanced and bridging the gap between the haves and have-nots . We should not be surprising that certain people want to enter the world of those who have power and money, using the tricks they are, many of them being referred to as crimes (Morris, 1974).
Punishment announced for those who do not meet the standard, ie, the misfits, is often the only reason for people to remain within the scope of the law. However, when crime reaches its highest levels, we should start to think that the judicial system does not reflect the collective consensus about right and wrong, or this has been revisited so that many decide to impose their own rules to achieve their goals. Despite the existence of socially accepted legal framework, the concept that everyone has about what is right and what is not being built in the socialization process, which apprehends the meaning that each will be real , regardless of the tax by the standard (Zimring and Hawkins, 1991).

Sense of Punishment & Meaning of Prisons
What is what you get with the prison system of punishment? Reinsert the individual ¿? Rather, he was stigmatized by preventing return to society with the label “normal”, carrying instead of “marginalized.” What alternatives can be raised to this punishment? Is it really punishment necessary? Prison is not the therapeutic environment that is advertised to voters, but rather a hole that pulls people awaiting death in life. Lower crude does not describe them more accurately. Subsequently, and without the criminal law to abandon this idea about the dangerousness of the offender, was added to “social ill” from which sprang a myriad of theories supported by the budgets of psychology. Under this approach, we investigate the offender and seek to discover the trends and tendencies towards crime (Furio, 2002).
Thus, there is justification for the talk of re-socialization and rehabilitation of offenders. If within the clinical criminology, simple and simply try to solve the problem of the syndrome. crime, is also justified the creation of prisons, laboratories, where the prisoners should be seen as a social ill and through a single diagnosis multidisciplinary treatment also will implement a multidisciplinary approach to banish the disease hazard. Thus, the main laws of many countries would have to be reformed and some criminal laws repealed to make way for scientific advancement of criminal law (Cayley, 1999).

Conclusion
Everything could be fine for the offender for judges, to the executor of the punishment and for society, but what went wrong? Of all the scenarios, an perhaps round the failure of this new model prison system: the state is not interested in investing in criminals, only does so when, in the eyes of international organizations, need to show another face. It handles the appearance and simulation. It appears to reform the prison system in the country, and only three prisons are built guy who then abandoned and become self-governing prisons, is simulated, giving the prisoner a peer treatment, but immediately discarded when you think that “does not deserve it” because he has transgressed and must “pay”, perhaps with pain, torture, starvation, humiliation and impotence. Today, they are still buildings that were part of prison reform.  Within this system of self seems nothing happens, but to obey, but it is exactly back to what was proposed to banish Beccaria. Although the formula is valid penological clinical treatment, within this prison reality can be considered a fiction of criminal law. And we, we are free, we believe, as we did not assault a former prisoner who cares only show their resentment, no matter who is going to hurt, steal or perhaps kill, because all he cares about is the challenge to authority, one that was exacerbated by it. But at the same time, this individual also brings out the lie of resocialization as a repeat offender becomes more.

References
Sasha Abramsky, 2002. Hard Time Blues: How Politics Built a Prison Nation. New York: St. Martin’s.
Morris, Norval, 1974. The Future of Imprisonment. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, pp 11-91.
Zimring, Franklin E., and Hawkins, Gordon, 1991. The Scale of Imprisonment. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Cayley, David , 1999. The Expanding Prison: The Crisis in Crime and Punishment and the Search for Alternatives Pilgrim Press.
Furio, Jennifer, 2002,  Restorative Justice: Prison as Hell or a Chance for Redemption?. Algora Publishing.

Running Head: DR. WHITE’S BUDGET CUTS

Dr. White’s Budget Cuts
[Writer Name]
[Institute Name]
Dr. White’s Budget Cuts

MANAGERIAL ACCOUNTING AND COST ACCOUNTING
Managerial accounting can be defined as the finding, introduction, rendition and submission of financial and valued detail to the interior management of a company at every level. Feldman, (2010) defined that merely put, managerial accounting is the accounting system for the designing, managing and decision making actions of a company. The techniques used to collect procedure and appear with financial/quantitative data within a business to help effective scorekeeping, preparation, control of cost, pricing, and making decisions to occur. The work of warranting the existence of a managerial accounting theory depends on the definition of suitable principles and postulates.
Cost objective is a measurement of the cost for a special purpose. In cost objective an accountant does time calculation. It determines result of cost for an accounting period. Cost objective plays an important role in the costing and performance calculation of an organization. It represents a special type of accounting or calculation for the costing of an enterprise. Cost objective accounting divides all the costs in different items of a firm. It solves the problem of cost distribution.
Cost objective accounting divides all the costs according to the lean Production and manufacturing operations. Every item has its different cost. It is an accounting system that separates the cost on different items. Feldman, (2010) explained that it is important for a firm to decide a right cost objective because it will provide an accurate data to the managers so that they can make a sound decision for the organization. A well allocation of the cost in process will help to reduce the cost for the firm.

CONCEPTS DIFFERENCES
The differences between management accounting and financial accounting stem from the different information needs of the people who are using the two types of information. Financial accounting deals with reporting information that pertains to the financial position, performance, and conduct of a firm for a given period to a set of users and the market in general. Management accounting is more oriented in the direction of in-house decision-making and on purpose guides pertinent and well-timed information to in-house managers. Khan, & Jain, (2010) discussed that whereas financial accounting provides financial information primarily to outside interested groups including shareholders, government, customers, suppliers of goods and services, lenders of finance and employees, managerial accounting information seeks to provide information to those in positions of authority within the organization.
By reporting on the financial activities of the organization, financial accounting provides information needed by investors and creditors. Financial accounting is the result of applying GAAP to the recording of transactions between different entities. As such, financial accounting statements conform to a set of rules established by the profession. Conversely, management accounting reveals the utilization of methods from a variety of discipline, which include accounting, for in-house problem-solving. Therefore, management accounting techniques may differ from GAAP techniques and from one company to another, and are not obligated to comply with GAAP. Khan, & Jain, (2010) defined that managerial accounting does not follow any set of prearranged regulations, and a lot can be up to the philosophies of the person making the decisions. But, although managerial accounting has no formally adopted set of principles, it relies strongly on financial accounting principles. Understanding the principles of basics of financial accounting is therefore critical to understanding both financial and managerial accounting information.

LEAN PRODUCTION
As competition was rising between companies to supply the best quality product at the lowest cost possible, principles and practices were developed in order to achieve a competitive advantage, where one of these practices was that of Lean Manufacturing which was originally conceptualized by Toyota in the 1960s and kept on extending to other firms until this day, though the question that aroused was why not extend the Lean Principles onto other business sectors, why stop the application of Lean at the entrance or exit of a manufacturing plant? Thus Lean practices were extended to be found applicable in accounting as in lean accounting, services such as lean healthcare and of course at a larger scale as in the production as a whole that was Production Chain. Nicholas, (2010) discussed that moreover, as competition is rising further and going towards a Production to Production competition, such implies that Supply Chains are to adopt new practices in order to gain the competitive advantage over one another.
In this article the Lean Production concept is studied as a solution to Production Management, answering questions that might come up to stakeholders minds as well as showing examples of how 2 different companies have applied the Lean Production within their Chains. Nicholas, (2010) stated this article starts off with short introductions about Lean Manufacturing Principles, Production Management Theory & Production Theory, followed by an insight of the attributes of a Lean Production and how the Lean principles are implemented within the Supply Chain, thereafter, a set of arguments that answers a variety of questions based on Why take the burden of creating a Lean Production thus involving in other firms operations instead of taking different approaches, after that, examples of how a Lean Production is being achieved or was achieved by 2 different companies “Honda & Cisco”, subsequently the paper finishes off with conclusions based on what was presented earlier.
COMPARE AND CONTRAST ACCOUNTING PRINCIPLES
Sorenson, (2010) defined that in Lean Production the whole flow as of raw materials to consumer is regarded as an integrated intact, where the basic principle of Lean Production is” that the outcome of cost linked with below perfect completing of a sub-process are not restricted to the location of the implementation, where when taking the supplier into consideration, lean suppliers would quest to make sure that their worth is being transported to the end consumer, therefore making sure their survival, while likewise the customer would be placed under the pressure of the end consumer to lower their retail prices thus reduce their cost which would logically be transferred onto the supplier to reduce their cost of components and raw materials, which means that the customer and their suppliers are put in the same boat, having a mutual destiny, and the same goal of achieving the lowest cost to be provided to their end consumer in order to achieve a competitive advantage.

CALCULATION

Program Area Costs
Administration Salaries

Costs    Best Case     Worst Case
Administrator     $60,000     $1,200     $3,000
Assistant     $35,000     $700     $1,750
Two Secretaries     $42,000     $2,100     $21,000
Supplies    $35,000     $3,000     $6,000
Advertising and promotion     $9,000     $1,000     $2,000
Professional meetings/dues     $14,000     $4,000     $7,000
Purchased Services

Accounting and billing    $15,000     $1,000     $3,000
Custodial     $13,000     $1,000     $2,500
Security     $12,000     $0.00     $2,000
Consulting    $10,000     $2,000     $5,000
Community Mental Health Services Salaries (two social workers)     $46,000     $920     $23,000
Transportation    $10,000     $5,000     $10,000

Outpatient Mental Health Treatment Salaries

Psychiatrist    $86,000     $1,720.00     $4,300.00
Two Social Workers     $70,000     1,400.00    $3,500.00

Total     $457,000     $25,040     $94,050

Dr. White is faced along with complex decisions as to where to create budget cuts. Above she will discover proposals as to where she may create budget cuts. A better case and nastiest case scenario is offered for every category. Sorenson, (2010) explained that the excellent case for the administrator, social workers, assistant, and psychiatrist demonstrate a diminution in salary of 2 percent. The nastiest case scenario for budget cuts in these regions is a diminution in salary by 5 percent
The office has two secretaries that each creates $21,000 a year. In this economy secretaries are ten a penny. The excellent case for cutting down budgets would be a 5 percent declination in their salaries. Worst case would be the elimination of one of their spots. This would augment the number of work for the enduring secretary so the enduring secretary will not carry a salary and must be relevant the cost diminution method.

References

Dorothy, Feldman, (2010): Advances in Accounting Education Teaching and Curriculum Innovations: Published by Emerald Group Publishing: ISBN 0857242911, 9780857242914: 131-135.
John, Nicholas, (2010): Lean Production for Competitive Advantage: A Comprehensive Guide to Lean Methodologies and Management Practices: Published by Taylor and Francis: ISBN 1439820961, 9781439820964: 245-250.
Khan, & Jain, (2010): Management Acc, 5E: Published by Tata McGraw-Hill Education: ISBN 0070681961, 9780070681965.
Sharon, Sorenson, (2010): Webster’s New World Student Writing Handbook: Webster’s New World Student Writing Handbook: Published by John Wiley and Sons: ISBN 0470435399, 9780470435397: 240-245.

Maternal Drug Use Introduction Human from conception throughout their life passes from different stages of development. The person to whom any child is deeply attached physically and emotionally is mother during the developmental phases (Newman, 354-358). So it is matter of consideration the use and abuse of addictive drugs and alcohol has occurred throughout many centuries. Only recently have certain drugs under question become defined as “illegal.” Many pregnant women use such medications without prior consideration to the adverse effects of these substances on their unborn children. The effects of chemicals, such as opiates, cocaine, nicotine, alcohol, and new recreational drugs are under research. Discussion Maternal substance abuse may consist of any combination of drug, chemical, alcohol, or smoking use during the pregnancy. While in the womb, a fetus grows and develops due to the nourishment and this nourishment is transferred from the mother’s body to fetus with the help of placenta (Blackburn, 221-222). Though, along with nutrients, toxins that are present in the mother’s system may be transported to the fetus. These toxins usually damage the development of fetal organs. Unluckily, many women utilize different drugs and alcohol for relaxation before they know they are expectant. Some continue to abuse drugs after knowing that they are pregnant because these women are addicted to drugs or alcohol or having some mental problems, which cannot be controlled (Blackburn, 221-222). More significant long-term developmental problems may be observed in children who are born with growth retardation or several organ problems. Babies born to mothers, who drink even in modest amounts, may be born with the fetal alcohol syndrome, which often consists of unusual features of face, mental retardation and delay in growth. Other drugs may cause defects of the brain, heart, kidney or bowel that can have significant impact on long-term development and outcome. Maternal use of Alcohol Exposure to alcohol is more widespread and has perhaps an even more serious impact. The National Institute on Drug Abuse estimates that sixty percent of women who are at childbearing age use beverages which contain alcohol despite the fact that alcohol usage throughout pregnancy are implicated in a wide range of birth defects and developmental disabilities, including mental retardation, physical abnormalities, and visual and auditory impairments. Consuming alcohol during the early stages of pregnancy is dangerous to the fetus. Many mothers may be drinking while pregnant and not even know they are pregnant. Among all mothers who did not get prenatal care as early as they wanted, 37 percent said the reason was that they did not know they were pregnant. Even if a mother quits drinking once she knows she is pregnant, she may not have quit in time. Drinking endangers the growing baby in a number of ways: It increases the risk of miscarriage and stillbirth. As little as one drink a day can raise the odds for low birth weight. Alcohol use during pregnancy is a known cause of birth defects associated with the fetal alcohol syndrome. The characteristic features of this syndrome include craniofacial anomalies (Soby, 86-89). It is unclear whether alcohol intake is also related to the more common types of craniofacial anomalies not associated with fetal alcohol syndrome, such as cleft lip and palate. Previous epidemiological studies of maternal alcohol exposure and orofacial clefts have had inconsistent results. Alcohol affects the central nervous system of both the breastfeeding mother and the infant. The ability of the caretaker to respond to the needs of the infant may be compromised if under the influence of alcohol. Maternal use of Alcohol raises child’s risk for problems with learning, speech, attention span, language, and hyperactivity (Doweiko, 247-249). And some research has shown that expectant mothers who have as little as one drink a week are more likely than nondrinkers to have children who later exhibit aggressive and delinquent behavior. Maternal use of Narcotics Cocaine’s effects are subject to controversy, but the following are the general findings on its effect on pre-natal babies exposed to this substance: (1) stillbirth increases in number; (2) premature delivery; (3) premature detachment of placenta; (4) meconium staining or the dark green mucilaginous material in the intestine of the full-term fetus; (5) smaller-than-normal head size and low birth weight; (6) low scores in the assessment of condition of the new-born; and (7) disorganized behavioral states in the prenate and neonate. Besides the above mentioned, several researches showed that the effects of prenatal cocaine exposure (including suspected neurological abnormalities, low birth weight, and the consequences of withdrawal) normalize within the first year after birth, preliminary reports from one longitudinal study found that thirty to forty percent of a sample of cocaine-exposed children had language development and attention problems through at least their fourth year of life (Arenson, 137-140). For instance, some children do not understand simple questions like, “Are you hungry?” Even at five years old, they are not able to follow two-step commands. They also cannot understand the real meaning of words and to generalize these “symbols of experience” to new but similar situations. An accumulating body of evidence shows that Marijuana use by pregnant woman has harmful effects on fetal development and neonatal behavior, including baby’s neurological development. Babies born to mothers, who used Marijuana during pregnancy, are smaller in size than babies born to mothers who did not use marijuana (Arenson, 137-140). Prenatal marijuana usage was related to learning and memory difficulties up till the age of eleven years. Infant whose mothers were addicted to heroin show several behavioral problems such as tremors, irritability, disturbed sleep and impaired motor control. Maternal use of Nicotine Nicotine is an extremely powerful and addictive drug. The nicotine in cigarettes narrows blood vessels in the mother’s uterus, in the placenta (afterbirth) and in the baby’s umbilical cord. This lessens the amount of oxygen and nutrients the baby receives and may result in poorer growth and low birth weight (weighing less than 5 pounds, 8 ounces at birth). The more the mother smokes during pregnancy, the greater the risk of her baby being born too small. Women who smoke during and after pregnancy increase the risk of their babies dying of Sudden Infant Death Syndrome – SIDS (Soby, 86-89). Nicotine is excreted into breast milk with milk to plasma ratio of 2.9. Nicotine and cotinine have been detected in the serum and urine of nursing infants (Briggs and Freeman, 995-998). The manufacturer recommends that caution be used when administering nicotine to nursing women. A few studies have been suggestive of birth defects with the maternal use of Nicotine. One study found a seventeen fold increase in the incidence of anencephaly (no forebrain or cerebrum) associated with maternal use of Nicotine and another found an increased incidence of congenital heart disease. There are increase chances of respiratory system impairment in children whose mothers smoke during pregnancy. Children of women who smoke at least ten cigarettes per day have a higher incidence of asthma than children of women who do not smoke. Postnatal contact to tobacco smoke also has been connected to increased incidence and increased severity of asthma symptoms (Briggs and Freeman, 995-998). Another study discovered a connection between maternal smoking during pregnancy and increased incidence of attention deficit, hyperactivity disorder in almost 3,000 children of five to sixteen years of age. Connection between mother and child is the closest one throughout the life but it is very much during pregnancy fetus completely depends upon the mother (Newman, 354-358). Everything mother takes into its body may be in the form of fluid or solid or even inhale something directly reaches to the fetus. At every stage of fetus development mother should take care about her diet what she is taking in for survival or for recreation. Conclusion Most kids who were exposed to drugs and alcohol in fetus may have significant effects on their lives. Though, proper care from both the parents and the teachers can help reduce the impairments and disabilities brought about by the exposure. Studies and research are still being conducted to increase the knowledge on the individual or exclusive effects of this exposure. Awareness and understanding are also important precursors to prevention, but prevention may take even longer and will be difficult. Difficulty, though, is no excuse to shirk from the task.  Work Cited: Arenson, Janet; (2007) Maternal and newborn health, Published by Jones & Bartlett Learning, ISBN 0763738875, 9780763738877, 137-140. Briggs, Gerald and Freeman, Roger; (2008) Drugs in pregnancy and lactation: a reference guide to fetal and neonatal risk, Published by Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, ISBN 078177876X, 9780781778763, 995-998. Blackburn, Susan; (2007) Maternal, fetal, & neonatal physiology: a clinical perspective, Published by Elsevier Health Sciences, ISBN 1416029443, 9781416029441, 221-222. Doweiko, Harold; (2009) Concepts of chemical dependency, Published by Cengage Learning, ISBN 0495505803, 9780495505808, 247-249. Newman, Barbara; (2008) Development Through Life: A Psychosocial Approach, Published by Cengage Learning, ISBN 0495553417, 9780495553410, 354-358. Soby, Jeanette; (2006) Prenatal exposure to drugs/alcohol: characteristics and educational implications of fetal alcohol syndrome and cocaine/polydrug effects, Published by Charles C Thomas Publisher, ISBN 0398076359, 9780398076351, 86-89.

Running Head: SINGLE-PARENT-CHILD REARING

Single-Parent-Child Rearing
[Writer Name]
[Institute Name]

Single-Parent-Child Rearing

Introduction
Single-parent-child rearing and developing or single parenthood is a parent who cares for their children devoid of any support of the other biological parent in the home. Single-parent-child rearing may differ in accordance to the rules and regulations of different countries. This major problem in this modern society may take place for a lot of reasons. Some possible situations are by choice, as in, artificial insemination, separation of parents, adoption, alternate motherhood, whereas different other situations are the consequence of an unforeseeable event, like death, child abuse or abandonment by one of the biological parents, or an single girl or woman becoming pregnant by a short sexual activity.

Discussion
In America, single mothers confront many problems while bringing up kids. Economic issues being the leading problem as ex-partner may not afford or pay the court order money for the rearing of child. Such mothers may not be capable to perform a permanent work or job consequently they cannot be able to afford the day care centers. Therefore, many women are reliant on different welfare organizations like WIC (Women Infants and children) or AFDC (aid to families with dependent children). This reliance on such organizations once established is complicated to break (Mooney & Knox, 2010, 212-224).
There are a lot of reasons for the economic concerns of lone mother. Though several ex-partners realize and execute the court ordered financial responsibilities about their children; some of them do not obey with court ordered support. So, the resulted may be in further physical and mental burden on lone mother, it makes it complicated for her to carry out the basic needs of their children like nutrition and clothing. Many people may view the support of court ordered as luxury; but in contrast it is only for the basic requirements.
The children continually grow so they need a basic nutrition and clothing. Education is not completely free in most of the schools. Likewise children of preschool need child care, while day care centers are not easy to afford. Furthermore the welfare organization like AFDC and WIC will not assist the women till the court’s issue is settled. It indicates that further contacting with the court and making your ex-partner to give the money as order through any legal resources. This task is not very easy to find an ex- partner so the single mother can do not anything than to depend and trust on her. This puts the both children and mother in very difficult situations in which homelessness is very important factor. Such are the effects of single-parenting (Mooney & Knox, 2010, 212-224).
According to a media report a high unmet need for contraceptive method among different females existing in the rural areas therefore an excessive pregnancy in teenage observed. The report consequently calls for the programs of empowerment for females in order that they can take over of their behaviors regarding reproduction. In America, a lot of children have grown up devoid of fathers. In several areas, several females who are single parents run their homes due to their partners have left his families to job in far cities or even out of country. Several husbands also have lost their lives due to diseases of AIDS (Cooke, 2010, 150-163). A few females become lone parents after losing their partners by war.
It is fact that many females have become single parents because of the rising issue of divorces or separation. The issue with separation is that it is not just the marriage that decomposes but also it affects the children who get divided from their parents. America is mainly a patriarchal society and consequently children have endured highly because of absent fathers. In most areas, men are not confronting their patriarchal duty has a deep effect on the shared awareness of next American generations. Furthermore, impacts of divorce on American children contain the rising possibility for exploitation of child. The increase issue in America causes to more orphans and child labor as single parents selects to leave their children due to severe poverty.

Conclusion
Several conservatives argue that due to most families of single-parent led through the women, society is threatened through the occurrence of heavy numbers of male teenager who have been raised devoid of any direction that is usually facilitated by a father. In accordance to David Blankenhorn, the head of the Institute for American Values: Facing Our Most Vital Social Issue, “Without parents mainly fatherlessness is very dangerous and unfortunate trend in this modern society (Yarber, 2010, 99-105).” However, this issue is very serious and the most leading cause of neglecting the well-being of children in this society. It leads the basic social issues, from crime to teenage pregnancy to child abuse and exploitation to violence against females domestically.

References

Cooke. Shae. (2010). Single Parent’s Guide to Raising Godly Children. Published by Destiny Image, Inc. ISBN 0768431980, 9780768431988. 150-163.
Hunter. Teronda. (2010). Single Parenting. Published by Xlibris Corporation. ISBN 1450059236, 9781450059237. 25-34.
Mooney. Linda A and Knox. D. (2010). Understanding Social Problems. Published by Cengage Learning. ISBN 049581296X, 9780495812968. 212-224.
Yarber. Annice D. (2010). Focus On Single-Parent Families: Past, Present, And Future. Published by ABC-CLIO. ISBN 0313379505, 9780313379505. 99-105.

Literary Analysis
Introduction
In this paper three great pieces of literature are taken under consideration. All the three novels are written with respect to different culture. In the novel Candide by Voltaire depicts the long journey of a person in search of better life. In the second piece of literature Monkey by Wu Ch’eng-en reveals the journey of Monk Tripitaka who travels to India in search of some religious content he also encounters cultural difference. In third and last piece of literature Gulliver’s Travels by Jonathon Swift is a story about two different species that exist and has different cultural context.

Discussion
In the first novel ‘Candide’ author writes about the journey of Candide.  By explaining how Candide travel around the world and faced the pathetic situations during his long journey, author also uses irony to disclose the exploitation of human. This is how satire works.  Creating a perfect world and comparing to corrupted society, it’s easier to convince readers (Cooksey, 105-107).  Satire is the tool of two authors presents their essential purposes that criticize the human weakness and questioning the human nature.

There are many characters in the novel which convince reader that they were authoritative figures but Pangloss is the one character which guides the main character Candide in his life as a teacher and also in his journey. Pangloss, taught Candide that always have faith in that “Everything is for the best in this best of all possible worlds”, escapes from death several times.  He still insists his philosophic thinking which exactly takes him towards problems. Dr. Pangloss, mentor and teacher of Candide explains that in this best of all possible worlds, anything can occurs out of complete necessity, and that everything happens for the best. In respect to his own bad luck, Pangloss replies that it is essential for achieve batter then this (. Lee, 107-111). The result is that the theorist appears completely blind to his own experiences as well as the horrors endured by his friends.

Cunegonde’s brother constantly refuses Candide marry with his sister even Cunegonde isn’t beautiful anymore.  Other characters like Cunegonde, the old lady, Martin, they all have been through a lot of misfortune circumstances.  Each character has its own function to from author’s satire. Author uses his tone of ridicule to present an absurd journey of Candide and reveal to world is cruel place (Cooksey, 105-107). The witness makes Candide’s journey delight even they suffer a lot of misfortune. Pangloss always help Candide in his hard time; Pangloss had always convinced Candide that when something bad happened it means something good is coming this way. The in times of hardships of Candide Pangloss always supported him he became a father figure for him in true senses.

Third novel is Monkey. This novel is about journey consisted of many encounters where appearance is deceiving.  The evil wizard is one of the most deceiving characters throughout the story.  Through changing his appearance, he is able to disguise his true self as a lion of the gods to complete his task in teaching the king a lesson for being unkind to a beggar who was asking for help.  The evil wizard pretended to help the king of the Crow-Cock Kingdom but instead shifts his form into the king and steals his throne.  When Monkey confronts the evil wizard about this change he then again shifts his form into Tripitaka so that Monkey cannot attack him.  Through these appearances, the evil wizard was able to hide the reality that he was truly a lion on a mission.

Though the evil wizard was one of the most manipulative characters, Pigsy and the Dragon both deceived reality with their appearances. Pigsy fooled those of the woman he married into believing he was a hard working young man, but once his true identity of a pig was known they soon became fearful of him.  Another instance was when the white dragon was punished for eating the white horse so he was then transformed into Tripitaka’s white horse for the journey (Gillman, 116-120). The appearances that deceived were all to complete their own missions and ultimately teach a lesson.

Throughout the stories Monkey by Wu Ch`eng-en and Tartuffe by Jean-Baptiste Poquelin Molière, appearance versus reality is a key theme.  The audience can see the demise that Tartuffe had in store for Orgon all along.  As for Monkey, the reality throughout the story is layered between illusions and the supernatural, reality and truth.  Both characters were deceived by opposite forces in which the quest for power and to meet their desires blinded their inability to decipher truth from false.

Although Monkey grows increasingly devoted to his master through the course of the novel, Tripitaka never fully trusts him, however much he depends on him; and if there is a difficult Buddhist lesson in the novel (Gillman, 116-120), it is to grasp how Tripitaka, the ordinary man as saint, can be the novel’s true hero.

In the novel ‘Gulliver’s Travel’, Swift makes up a society of horse society Houyhnhnm and a cruel animal Yahoo.  What’s more, both authors create an inexistent society by imagination, horse society Houyhnhnm and gold city Eldorado.  By comparing to reality world, the civilization of imaginary societies is more rational for human beings.  This is how satire works.  Creating a perfect world and comparing to corrupted society, it’s easier to convince readers.  Satire is the tool of two authors presents their essential purposes that criticize the human weakness and questioning the human nature.

The main character has to admit that human are yahoos after a series comparison between yahoo and human. Immoralities of human beings are uncovered by the Swift’s satiric tone. The Houyhnhnms seem to take their “life by reason” to the extreme: For example, they only marry for the strength of the species by using arranged marriages to yield the best offspring.  They also lack any consciousness for their own death, something that almost seems animalistic, not noble.

In ‘Gulliver’s travel’, Swift emphasizes the process how Gulliver realizes that he is a yahoo.  No matter Gulliver description about the war among the princes of Europe, Queen Anne, and a first minister in the courts of Europe, or master’s observation about the characteristics of yahoos, Swift uses a strong critical tone to point out the vices of human beings.  Gulliver uses tone of solemnity to explain how the yahoo and human have in common (Karian, 229-232).  Ironically, Gulliver insists to refuse his status of yahoo, the procedure of Gulliver’s acceptation to the status of yahoo is under a depressed atmosphere. When Gulliver backs home, he is still struggling to be a rational creature in his mind which is Houyhnhnm or to be a corrupted creature which is yahoo.

The fact that all the Houyhnhnms agree about law points to something else Gulliver loves about them: they don’t understand opinions or factions. To have an opinion about something, you have to speculate about something you can’t know for sure. The Houyhnhnms accept hard facts; anything outside of fact, you can’t argue about, because by definition you can’t know what the correct answer is. It makes no sense to argue about something you can never answer correctly. This is why the Houyhnhnms have no law.

Author through his writing showed that the Houyhnhnms do not have arguments or differences of opinion; they usually have friendly nature and they live equally with all members of their tribe (Karian, 229-232). In fact, this friendship thing is so important to Houyhnhnms that they treat all of their children as their own, and will educate all the children in the same way.

The Houyhnhnms symbolize man, directed by reason, into the path of righteousness. But in this novel they are not the authoritative figure. The Houyhnhnm word for to die is “Lhnuwnh.” The word is strongly expressive in their language. It signifies, to retire to his first Mother. This is not a euphemism, for the Houyhnhnms cannot say the thing that is not. They have therefore some notion of existence after death, though of course they have not benefited from Christianity.

Reason was not enough for the Houyhnhnms. It did not enable them to imagine a different country from their own, so that they accused Gulliver of lying when he told them that he came from over the sea. They also failed to figure out what his clothes were (DeGategno, 159-163). The Sorrel Nag who first discovered Gulliver undressed could only explain the sight by saying he was not the same thing when he slept as he appeared to be at other times. Gulliver could only show his master what his clothes were by undressing before him. The truth had to be revealed even to a Houyhnhnm. The moral of the encounter with the Yahoos and the Houyhnhnms is that Reason alone might be enough for men if they would only use it properly.

Conclusion
The three novels are great piece of work. The main theme of all three novels is journey in life. All these novels belong to different cultural context. But all three novels reveal the human nature. All the characters were passing through different experiences during the long journeys.

Work Cited:
Cooksey, Thomas; (2006) Masterpieces of philosophical literature, Published by Greenwood Publishing Group, ISBN 0313331731, 9780313331732, 105-107.
DeGategno, Paul; (2010) Critical companion to Jonathan Swift: a literary reference to his life and works, Published by Infobase Publishing, ISBN    0816050937, 9780816050932, 159-163.
Gillman, Derek; (2010) The Idea of Cultural Heritage, Published by Cambridge University Press, ISBN    0521122570, 9780521122573, 116-120.
Karian, Stephen; (2010) Jonathan Swift in Print and Manuscript, Publisher    Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0521198046, 9780521198042, 229-232.
Lee, Anthony; (2010) Mentoring in eighteenth-century British literature and culture, Published by Ashgate Publishing, ISBN    0754669777, 9780754669777, 107-111.

“On the wounds of our crucified lord”
Answer 1
It is a considerable reality that the poem of Richard Crashaw named “On the Wounds of Our Crucified Lord” turns out to be an effective expression of gratitude for divine love for English reader as the poem is masochistic, spiritual images and mixes erotic. The poem is written in an expression that Mary Magdalen is speaking while weeping. Then after the first two stanzas Mary changes the person whom she is addressing this turn out to be confusing for the readers. Mary Magdalen hesitates in first stanza connecting to the wounds on mouth, feet and eyes of Christ.
Crashaw has written poem in a way which is not acceptable to its readers. for the readers there is no challenge as in the poem “On the Wounds of Our Crucified Lord” there are five four-line verses of rhyming couplets. Employ of alliteration is often found in Crashaw poetry. Crashaw often employs alliteration in his poetry. By using the traditional biblical personal reference thine, he establishes the solemn formality of the occasion. Once he establishes his subject as Christ’s wounds, he moves directly into the mouth and eye comparison, questioning Christ as to which each of his wound represents, using in the third line an older plural form for eyes, eyne. The final line basically states that each wound is either an eye or a mouth.

Answer 2
Regeneration is from a combine word meaning “again” and “birth” is employed of spiritual regeneration and the conceiving sinner is born in a spiritual manner, cleansed through the blood of Jesus Christ, both are miracle of God through that the principle of novel spiritual life is implanted in human beings as well as ruling of his soul is made holy. Water baptism is an outward-bound testimony of what has already taken place among the worshiper. It is not a means of salvation, however, a testimony that the person has already been saved through grace alone through faith alone in Jesus Christ alone.
The conceiving sinner is born spiritually, cleansed by the blood of Jesus Christ, indwelt by the Holy Spirit. Water baptism is an outward testimony of what has already taken place within the believer. It is not a means of salvation, but a testimony that the individual has already been saved by grace alone through faith alone in Jesus Christ alone.
Abraham Kuyper argued (1898) that thinking minds have been separated into two distinct camps because of regeneration, the change in the Christian due to Christ’s salvation. According to Kuyper, as the power of regeneration is realized, it leads necessarily to the formation of two kinds of science: one founded on unbelieving principles and inevitably misshapen by sin, and the other founded upon faith in God and submissive to Scripture.
He believed that the regenerate and unregenerate are working on essentially two different projects, each going in different directions. Religiously speaking there cannot be any ultimate unity of science because the existence of God’s kingdom has created a different set of sciences (kingdom-sciences?) that are conducted to bring glory to God and that are shaped by different assumptions and a different agenda than are sciences created by the non-Christian. The assumptions of the two groups may so differ that even what constitutes grounds for argument may not be shared. Following Augustine, he believed that regeneration leads inevitably to a fundamental antithesis between the city (and kingdom) of God and the city of Man.
Answer 3
The common factors between “Bermudas” and “To His Coy Mistress” is that both poems are glitteringly conscious of itself as surface, with a degree of polish at once so invitingly transparent and so repelling hard, that the readers is drawn to elaboration and interpretation as irresistibly, and yet perhaps as unrewardingly, as a moth of light. In “Bermudas” on a ‘English Boat’ group of people are singing. It’s a dialogue between soul and body. Where in “To His Coy Mistress” the setting is imagery and this poem is divided 3 poetic stanzas. The speaker of the poem is nameless and he further does not disclose any biographical and physical information regarding him to woman who is also nameless and she also has the same aspect of not disclosing her any biographical and physical information.
Answer 4
Andrew Marvell’s “To His Coy Mistress” concentrates on compare and contrast of metaphysical such as abstract, transcendent and spiritual quality to a concrete sensible, tangible, physical etc object. In this poem Marvell compares love to a vegetable in a waggish symbol
For example: “My vegetable love grows should grow Kuyper, A (1898)
Vaster than empires and slower”
Carpe diem work:  “Eat drink, and be merry.” There is no compare and contrast and the theme is quite unlike in short the considerable reality that it is very different from poem from carpe diem work:  “Eat drink, and be merry.” because main theme is quite differ, main theme of “To His Coy Mistress” is regarding them man about this man who attempts to pick up this very beautiful lady. In Andrew Marvell’s “To His Coy Mistress” poet attempting to describe how much his love develops from women for her every time the man observers her. Them man is willing to love her until the end of time and keep on loving her after. Another theme which can be observed in the mid of Andrew Marvell’s “To His Coy Mistress” personality of man alter dramatically. Man goes from being a gentleman that could spend the rest of your life with and eternity to a person whose time is coming to an end actually quickly. It was about as if he was abusive her when he commented on her virginity:
“My echoing song: then worms shall try that long-preserved virginity,”

Works Cited
Kuyper, A (1898). Sacred theology. (J. H. DeVries, Trans.). New York: Charles Scribner’s & Sons.